Sociology Final Exam Study Guide
Sociology Final Exam Study Guide
What is Sociology?
Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research
Participant Observation
Questionnaire
Population
Sample / Representative Sample
Closed Ended / Open Ended
Case Study
Sociological perspective
Correlation
Causation
3 Steps to Determine Causation –
Standard 1: Two variables must be correlated -Standard 2: All other possible factors must be taken into account
Standard 3: A change in the independent variable must occur before a change in the dependent variable can occur
Ex: Church attendance & juvenile delinquency
#1 – Researchers found there’s a negative correlation
#2 – Consider AGE (older adolescents attend church less frequently & older adolescents are more likely to be delinquent) Therefore, NOT casual #3 – Do people stop attending church before they become delinquents or vice versa?
Functionalist Perspective -Approach that emphasizes the contributions made by each part of society
Ex: family, economy, and religion are “parts” of a society. The family contributes to society by providing for the reproduction and care of its new members.
The economy contributes by dealing with production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Religion contributes by emphasizing beliefs and practices related to sacred things.
Latent v. Manifest Function
Dysfunction
Conflict Perspective -Emphasizes conflict, competition, change, and constraint. within a society -Opposite perspective of functionalism Ex: Race, gender, social class, etc.
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective -Focuses on the interaction among people—interaction based on mutually understood symbols. Basic Assumptions: -We learn the meaning of a symbol from the way we see others reacting to it. -We learn the meaning of symbols based on our interaction with them. -We use meanings of symbols to imagine how others with respond to our behavior
Culture
Material v. Non-Material
Symbol
Hypothesis of Linguistic Relativity (Sapir- Whorf) -Our perceptions of the world depend in part on the particular language we have learned -Ex: Americans have many words for time Eskimos have 20+ word
Norms
Folkways
Mores
Taboo
Law
Informal v. Formal Sanctions
Positive v. Negative Sanctions
Values
3 Reasons for Cultural Change -Discovery: the process of finding some that already exists
Ex: the earth is round, athletic abilities of females -Invention: the creation of something new
Ex: iPod or technology -Diffusion: the borrowing of aspects of culture from other cultures Ex: foods, Christmas trees, piñatas
Ethnocentrism
Cultural Particulars v. Cultural Universals -Universals: General cultural traits that exist in all cultures
Ex: sports, cooking, courtship, housing, language, medicine, joking, marriage, etc. -Particulars: the unique ways in which a culture expresses universal traits
Ex: differences in caring for children – some cultures have women raise the kids, some have men raise the kids, some share the responsibilities
Subculture
Counterculture
Socialization
Self-Concept -Charles Horton Cooley -An image of yourself as having an identity separate from other people
Hidden Curriculum
Agents of Socialization
Total Institution -Places in which people are separated from the rest of the society and controlled by officials in charge
Ex: Mental hospitals, cults, prisons, and rehabilitation facilities
Resocialization -The process of adopting new norms, values, and attitudes, and behaviors -Elaborate system of rewards and punishments to attempt to give the resident new self-concepts. -Ex: Adopting new norms, values, and beliefs at a rehab Facility; basic training in the U.S. Marine Corps
Desocialization -The process of giving up old norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors Ex: Replacing personal possessions with standard- issue items, the use of a serial number to identify people, and the loss of privacy in prison
Anticipatory Socialization -The process of preparing to accept new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors. -It does not generally occur in prisons or mental hospitals because it involves voluntary change. -Often occurs when people are moving from one stage in their lives to another -Ex: Seniors in college—normally seen in jeans and sweatshirts—begin to dress and act more professionally as graduation approach
Reference Group -A group whose norms and values are used to guide behavior; a group whom you identify with. -Reference groups are used as a tool for anticipatory socialization. -Ex: Pre-teens look to teenagers to evaluate themselves and to acquire new norms, attitudes, values, and beliefs.
Social Structure
Achieved v. Ascribed Status
Role Conflict
Role Strain
Group (Primary v. Secondary)
Social Aggregate
Social Category
Conformity
Deviance (Positive v. Negative)
Strain Theory
Innovation
Rebellion
Ritualism
Control Theory
Differential Association Theory
Stigma
Victim Discounting -Process of reducing the seriousness of the crimes that injure people of a lower status -If the victim is “less valuable” – then the crime is less serious and the penalty is less severe Ex: death of minorities or poor
Recidivism
Features of a Minority group -A group of people with physical or cultural traits different from those of the dominant group in society
Ex: Latinos, women, Jewish population, etc. -5 Characteristics:
1. Has distinctive physical or cultural characteristics that can be used to separate it from the majority
2. Is dominated by the majority
3. Minority traits are often believed by the dominant majority to be inferior
4. Members of the minority have a common sense of identity
5. Majority determines who belongs to the minority through ascribed status
Assimilation -The blending or fusing of minority groups into the dominant society
-4 Types:
1. Anglo-conformity – most common form, where traditional American institutions are maintained, and people are accepted as long as they conform 2. Melting Pot – all ethnic and racial minorities voluntarily blend together
3. Tossed salad – traditions and cultures exist side by side
4. Cultural pluralism – See below 5.
Accommodation – extreme form of cultural pluralism such as the Amish or Cubans in Miami
Cultural Pluralism
Genocide
Population Transfer -A minority is forced to move to a remote location or to leaver entirely the territory controlled by the majority Ex: Native American removal or Jewish ghettos in WWI
Subjugation -Process by which a minority group is denied equal access based on everyday practice Ex: de jure or de facto segregation
Discrimination v. Prejudice
Stereotype
Socialization, Groups, and Stratification
Class Consciousness- Identification with the goals and interests of a social class
Coercion- An interaction in which individuals or groups are forced to behave a particular way
Conformity- Behavior that matches the group’s expectations
Group Think- self deceptive thinking that is based on conforming to the group’s beliefs and created by group pressure to conform
In Group- Type of group demands intense loyalty
Looking Glass Self- An image of yourself based on what you believe others think of you
Reference Group- Type of group has norms which guide behavior and which you identify with the most.
Self Concept- An image of you as having an identity separate from others
Social Class- segment of society whose members hold similar amounts of resources and share values, norms, and identifiable lifestyle
Social Exchange- A voluntary action performed in the expectation of getting a reward in reward
Social Interaction- The process of influencing each other as people relate
Social Mobility- The movement of individuals or groups between social classes
Socialization- The process of learning to participate in a group
Status- A position a person occupies within a social structure
Stratification- A ranking of people or groups according to their unequal access to scarce resources
Family
Blended Family- Family is formed when at least one or both parents have children from previous marriages or relationships
Cohabitated Family- Family involves a marriage-like arrangement without the legal obligations of formal marriage
Endogamy- Term describes a marriage within ones own group as required by social norms
Exogamy- practice of marrying outside ones group
Extended Family- family has two or more adult generations of the same family whose members share common house holds
Family- Term for a group of people related by marriage, blood, or adoption
Homogamy- Term for the free choice of who to marry
Matrilocal- Pattern in which married couples live with or near the wives parents
Monogamy- Term for a marriage consisting of one man and one woman at a time
Nuclear Family- Family structure is composed of parents and children
Patrilocal- Term for the pattern in which married couples live with or near the husband’s parents
Polygamy- Term for the marriage of one man to two or more woman at the same time
Same Sex Family- Family involves two people of the same sex raise a child together
Single Parent Family- Family involves an unwed or divorced parent raising a child
Education
Charter Schools- Public schools that are operated like private schools and run by public teachers and administrators
Cognitive Ability- Capacity for thinking abstractly
Cultural Bias- Unfair measurement of the cognitive abilities of people in the same social categories
Educational Equality- Condition in which schooling produces the same results for minority children as it does for other children
For Profit Schools- Schools which run by private companies on government funds
Formal Schooling- Education that is provided and regulated by society
Magnet Schools- Public schools that focus on particular disciplines or areas
Tracking- School districts place students in programs according to their academic ability levels
Voucher System- System in which public school funds may be used to support public, private or religious schools
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