Functional Consequences of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Functional Consequences of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
ADHD is associated with reduced school performance and academic attainment(Frazier et al. 2007), social rejection, and, in adults, poorer occupational performance, attainment, attendance, and higher probability of unemployment(Kessler et al. 2006) as well as elevated interpersonal conflict. Children with ADHD are significantly more likely than their peers without ADHD to develop conduct disorder in adolescence and antisocial personality disorder in adulthood(Mannuzza et al. 1998), consequently increasing the likelihood for substance use disorders and incarceration. The risk of subsequent substance use disorders is elevated, especially when conduct disorder or antisocial personality disorder develops(Klein et al. 2012). Individuals with ADHD are more likely than peers to be injured(Merrill et al. 2009; Pastor and Reuben 2006). Traffic accidents and violations are more frequent in drivers with ADHD. There may be an elevated likelihood of obesity among individuals with ADHD(Cortese et al. 2008; Fuemmeler et al. 2011).
Inadequate or variable self-application to tasks that require sustained effort is often interpreted by others as laziness, irresponsibility, or failure to cooperate. Family relationships may be characterized by discord and negative interactions. Peer relationships are often disrupted by peer rejection, neglect, or teasing of the individual with ADHD. On average, individuals with ADHD obtain less schooling, have poorer vocational achievement, and have reduced intellectual scores than their peers, although there is great variability. In its severe form, the disorder is markedly impairing, affecting social, familial, and scholastic/occupational adjustment.
Academic deficits, school-related problems, and peer neglect tend to be most associated with elevated symptoms of inattention, whereas peer rejection and, to a lesser extent, accidental injury are most salient with marked symptoms of hyperactivity or impulsivity(Willcutt et al. 2012).
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